【初稿】 早发型家族性阿尔兹海默病

Early-Onset Familial Alzheimer Disease

EOFAD
英文原文链接

, MD
Seattle VA Medical Center
Departments of Neurology and Medicine
University of Washington
Seattle, Washington

翻译者:商慧芳,陈永平

Initial Posting: 2017-09-01 11:51:55; Last Update: 2018-05-10 10:16:55.

总结

临床特点

阿尔兹海默病( Alzheimer disease,AD)是一种以成年起病的进行性痴呆伴大脑皮质萎缩,β-淀粉样斑块形成和神经元内神经纤维缠结为特点的疾病。AD起病初 通常表现为轻微的记忆力下降,随后逐渐加重最终进展为失能。 其他的特点包括混淆、判断力下降、言语错乱、躁动、戒断症状、幻觉、癫痫、帕金森 综合征、肌张力增高、肌阵挛、小便失禁和缄默等。 家族性AD(Familial Alzheimer disease,FAD)是指同一家系中有超过一个的AD的患者,并且通常累及同一家系的多代人。 早发型家族性AD(Early-onset Familial Alzheimer disease,EOFAD)指同一家系中所有AD患者的起病年龄均早于60-65岁,通常早于55岁。

诊断/辅助检查

EOFAD的诊断依据:同一家系内出现多个AD患者且起病年龄均早于65岁和/或在家系内检测到已知的可能引起EOFAD的基因的致病性突变。 根据遗传机制将EOFAD分为三类:1型AD(AD1), 由 APP基因突变引起 (约占EOFAD的10-15%);3型AD(AD3),由 PSEN1基因突变引起(约占EOFAD的30%-70%);4型AD(AD4) 由 PSEN2基因突变引起(约占<5%的EOFAD)。也有报道常染色体显性遗传( )的EOFAD的家系中未检测到已知的 PSEN1PSEN2APP 基因突变,因此,其他的基因突变也可能引起EOFAD。

管理

对症治疗:支 持性治疗;抑郁、易激惹、睡眠障碍、癫痫和幻觉的治疗可根据个体情况;受累患者通常最终需要家庭生活/护理照料;增加胆碱能活性的药物,如安理申(多奈哌 齐)、艾斯能(卡巴拉汀)和 Reminy (加兰他敏)对改善症状有轻微的疗效,但个体差异大;美金刚,一种NMDA受体拮抗剂,被允许用于治疗AD;理疗和职业治疗可帮助 提高日常生活能力。

监管:每月常规评估以识别和管理继发并发症。

避免药物/环境:突然的气温变化;镇静过度。

遗传咨询

EOFAD通常以常染色体显性遗传( )的方式进行传递。大多数患者的父母中有一个受累;少数患者的父母不受累,但其二级亲属( ,如叔叔、阿姨和祖父母等)为EOFAD患者。EOFAD患者的子女有50%的几率遗传致病性突变并成为EOFAD患者。如果家系中已明确致病性突变,则对风险孕妇进行产前检测可检测到突变;但是,产前检对于成年时期起病的疾病的检出率低。

 

诊断

临床诊断

阿尔兹海默病(见 Alzheimer Disease Overview)的诊断见于有以下表现的个体:

  • 成年时期起病的缓慢进展的痴呆
  • 无其他引起痴呆的原因
  • 神经影像学显示大脑皮质萎缩
  • 尸检见β-淀粉样神经炎症斑块和神经元内神经纤维缠结(见国家研究所老龄化研究组诊断标准[1998]。

早发型家族性AD(Early-onset Familial Alzheimer disease,EOFAD)指同一家系中有超过一个的AD的患者,通常累及同一家系的多代人且所有AD患者的起病年龄均早于60-65岁,通常早于55岁。

分子遗传学检查

基因。目前已知三个基因中的突变可能与EOFAD相关 :

其他位点。也有报道常染色体显性遗传( )的EOFAD的家系中未检测到已知的 PSEN1PSEN2APP 基因突变,因此,其他的基因突变也可能引起EOFAD[ Cruts et al 1998, Janssen et al 2003]。

临床检查

PSEN1

  • 靶突变分析。在芬兰人群中发现9号外显子( )中一个4555bp的缺失( );这一突变在其他人群中几乎未发现。
  • 编码区()和相关的内含子()区域的序列分析可以检测到已知的引起EOFAD的错义( )突变,也可检测到引起9号外显子缺失的剪接位点( )突变[ Perez-Tur et al 1995]。
  • 缺失/重复分析(Deletion/ analysis)通过筛查整个基因检测罕见的外显子或全基因组缺失[ Smith et al 2001]。这一方法也可检测到芬兰人群中的4555bp的缺失 ( )。

APP

  • 序列分析/突变筛查。所有致病性突变,除了罕见的重复性突变(见后文),均出现于16号和17号外显子。 多数突变为错义( )或无义( nonsense)突变;也有一个插入缺失( )(表2 Table 2)。序列分析对于外显子具有局限性,因为这些外显子编码具有蛋白酶裂解活性的A-β多肽(见 Molecular Genetics, APP)。因此,只对16号和17号外显子测序的实验室应被列为选择性外显子测序或全编码区( )测序。推荐直接联系实验室。
  • 缺失/重复分析(Deletion/ analysis)(包括应该原位杂交技术 FISH)。 APP基因重复突变在 APP所有致病性突变中占不足1%[ Rovelet-Lecrux et al 2006]。

PSEN2

  • 编码区(coding regio)的序列分析可检测到已知的引起EOFAD的错义( )突变。

表一

EOFAD的分子遗传学检测总结

View in own window

基因 1占EOFAD致病基因的比例检测手段可检测到的突变基因检测手段可检测到突变检测概率 3
PSEN130%-70% 4靶突变分析9号外显子的4555bp缺失(芬兰人群中发现的突变) 5100%检测到靶突变
序列分析 6序列变异~98%
缺失/重复分析 7部分和全基因缺失突变,包括芬兰人群中检测到的9号外显子缺失突变100% 检测到罕见的缺失突变
APP10%-15%16号和17号外显子序列分析 6/突变筛查 816号和17号外显子序列突变99%
缺失/重复分析 7部分和全基因重复突变100% 检测到靶重复突变
PSEN2<5%序列分析 6序列突变~100%
1.

染色体位点( )和蛋白见 表 A. Genes and Databases。

2.

等位基因变异信息见 Molecular Genetics

3.

使用的检测手段的检出突变的能力。


4.

PSEN1突变检出率最高的情况见于早发型AD(起病年龄<60岁)并有另外的家庭成员(尤其是父母)出现早发型AD的患者 [Rogaeva et al 2001, Lleó et al 2002, Janssen et al 2003, Tedde et al 2003]。

5.

芬兰人群,这一突变在其他人种中十分罕见。

6.

序列分析( )的例子包括小基因间缺失/插入,错义( )突变,无义( nonsense)突变和剪接位点( )突变;典型的,外显子或全基因缺失/重复不能被检测到。测序分析结果解读的相关事宜,请点击 here

7.

可检测到序列分析不能检测到的基因组DNA编码区和侧翼内含子区域中的缺失/重复突变;具体手段包括:定量PCR,长范围PCR,多重连接依赖性探针扩增(MLPA)和包含目标基因/染色体片段的染色体微阵列分析( chromosomal microarray,CMA)

8.

序列分析和突变筛选有相似的缺失突变检出率;然而,缺失突变的突变筛查检出率可因为实验方案的不同而在实验室之间存在较大差异。

在一个受累的个体的外周血淋巴细胞DNA中检测到 PSEN1突变;然而,她的临床表现与她受累并已死亡且进行了尸检确诊的母亲的临床表现不同。随访调查发现她的母亲携带 PSEN1的体细胞嵌合( );通过序列分析( ),在脑皮质DNA检测到突变,而在外周血淋巴细胞DNA中未检测到[ Beck et al 2004]。

检测策略

在先证者()中确认/建立诊断需要使用分子遗传学 ( )检测到三个已知与EOFAD相关的致病基因之一的致病性突变。

  • 当早发AD家族史阳性时:
    • 首先进行最常见的与EOFAD相关的 PSEN1基因的序列分析( )。如果患者( )为芬兰人种,可首先进行 PSEN1基因的靶突变分析( )。
    • 如果未发现PSEN1基因突变,则进行 APP基因16号和17号外显子以及 PSEN2基因全外显子序列分析( )。
      Note: Duplication analysis of APPand of PSEN1need only be done if the goal is to test for even the rarest mutations.
  • 在单一型( )病例(如一个家系中只有一名患者),检测策略与上相同,但检出致病性突变的几率极( Lleó et al [2002]的研究显示约为6%)。然而,在单一病例中检出致病性突变的几率随发病年龄的减小而增加,尤其是在起病年龄<50岁的换这种。

注意:无论有无家族史,在晚发型AD患者中致病性突变的检出率很低。90%的携带 PSEN1突变的患者会在60岁前发表。

预测性检测适用于检测有风险但无症状的成年家庭成员要求提前检测家系中存在的致病性突变者。

产前检测和胚胎植入前遗传检测( , PGD)适用于检测风险孕妇要求提前检测家系中的致病性突变者。

 

临床特点

临床描述

典型的AD通常以轻微的不易察觉的记忆力下降起病 [ Godbolt et al 2004, Ringman et al 2005]。 缓慢地,多年后,患者记忆力下降逐渐严重并最终出现失能。 其他的特点包括混淆、判断力下降、言语错乱、躁动、戒断症状、幻觉、癫痫、帕金森 综合征、肌张力增高、肌阵挛、小便失禁和缄默等 [ Cummings et al 1998]。 AD患者的死因通常为全身营养不足,营养失调和肺炎。

3型AD( PSEN1突变)。起病年龄通常为40-50岁,也有起病年龄为30几岁和60岁的报道,起病晚于65岁极少见。患者常见起病后6-7年间疾病进展相对迅速且通常伴癫痫、及阵挛和语言功能减退[ Fox et al 1997, Gustafson et al 1998, Menéndez 2004]。一些的患者出现痉挛性截瘫症状伴“棉花状”淀粉样斑块[ Crook et al 1998, Brooks et al 2003, Ataka et al 2004, Hattori et al 2004, Raman et al 2007]。

APOE e4)可能会影响起病年龄[ Wijsman et al 2005] (见 Alzheimer Disease Overview)。

有报道携带 PSEN1突变的临床前期患者脑脊液中Aβ42水平降低[ Moonis et al 2005]。

Pittsburgh compound-B的PET扫描显示携带 PSEN1突变的患者纹状体内出现早期淀粉样蛋白沉积[ Klunk et al 2007]。

4型AD( PSEN2突变)。AD4患者起病年龄范围较AD1和AD3大。起病年龄多数为40-75岁,也有少部分不外显患者起病年龄晚于80岁[ Bird et al 1996]。平均病程为11年。 Jayadev et al [2010]综述了 PSEN2突变的临床、病理和遗传特点。

APOE e4 )可影响起病年龄(见 Alzheimer Disease Overview) [ Wijsman et al 2005]。

1型AD1 ( APP突变)。携带 APP突变的患者表现为典型的AD。起病年龄通常在40-50岁。一部分患者尸检显示神经元内路易小体形成伴斑块和缠结[ Revesz et al 1997]。

APOE e4纯合 )可能与起病年龄年轻化相关(见see Alzheimer Disease Overview)。

生物标记物。Bateman et al [2012] 发现了携带 APPPSEN1PSEN2突变的患者发病10-20年前体内的生物标记物变化,包括PET显示淀粉样蛋白沉积,脑脊液中β淀粉样蛋白降低和tau蛋白升高。

神经病理。PSEN1突变 (3型AD) 或 PSEN2 突变(4型AD)导致脑内β淀粉样蛋白沉积,神经纤维缠结和血管淀粉样病变[ Mann et al 1997]。路易小体形成也很常见 [ Leverenz et al 2006]。病理改变严重程度在AD患者中个体差异大[ Maarouf et al 2008, Jayadev et al 2010]。

PSEN1

APP

AD3 (PSEN1 突变)。在65岁前,完全,除了少数情况下与晚发型AD有关的 p.Ala79Val 和 p.Arg269His突变 [ Brickell et al 2007, Kauwe et al 2007, Larner et al 2007]。

AD4 (PSEN2 突变)。约为95%。在罕见情况下,年龄>80岁的携带PSEN2突变患者可无AD的表现。

尚无的报道。

患病率

Campion et al [1999] 发现早发型AD在风险人群(40-59岁人群)中的患病率为41.2/10万。

 

基因(等位基因)相关疾病

PSEN1PSEN2。只有一个研究发现携带 PSEN1PSEN2的扩张性心肌病[ Li et al 2006]。

APP。另一种与 APP突变相关的疾病)为荷兰型脑出血淀粉样变,是一种痴呆和脑淀粉样斑块不常见的疾病,是由 p.Glu693Gly 突变引起的。

鉴别诊断

大约75%的AD患者无家族史,另外25%的AD患者可以分为不同的遗传亚组。家族性病例似乎与非家族性病例在临床表现和病理表现上具有相同的表型( ),因此只能利用有无家族史鉴别家族性和非家族性病例(见 Alzheimer Disease Overview)。少数情况下,早发型AD可能在大多数病人为晚发型AD的家系中出现[ Brickell et al 2006]。

其他遗传因素引起的早发型痴呆包括额颞叶形式痴呆(如额颞叶痴呆伴帕金森综合征-17, frontotemporal dementia with parkinsonism-17[FTDP-17]),内涵体疾病伴Paget骨病伴/或额颞叶痴呆, inclusion body myopathy with Paget disease of bone and/or frontotemporal dementia[IBMPFD]), PGRN基因相关额颞叶痴呆( PGRN-related frontotemporal dementia)CHMP2B基因相关额颞叶痴呆( CHMP2B-related frontotemporal dementia),肌萎缩脊髓侧索硬化(amyotrophic lateral sclerosis,[ALS])伴额颞叶痴呆 (见 ALS Overview),亨廷顿舞蹈病( Huntington disease),朊蛋白病( prion diseases),常染色体显性遗传动脉病合并皮质下梗死和脑白质病 ( CADASIL),以及其他罕见神经系统退行性疾病。

 

管理

初始诊断后评估

为诊断EOFAD患者的疾病程度,需进行以下评估:

  • 病史(尤其是首发症状,病程和疾病进展)。特别的,起病年龄早于45岁的患者可能疾病进展更快。
  • 体格检查(尤其时心理状态评估)。
  • MRI和PET。MRI显示严重皮质萎缩和PETCT显示明显的代谢障碍提示 疾病严重。

对症治疗

主要治疗为支持性治疗和个体化对症治疗[ Clare 2002]。一般而言,患者( )最终需要生活辅助和家庭护理。

尽管AD的确切的生化基础尚不明确,但AD患者脑内胆碱能系统和其他神经递质缺乏是明确的。增加胆碱能活性的药物,如他克林胆碱酯酶抑制剂被允许用于AD治疗,有疗效但个体差异大。安理申(多奈哌齐),艾斯能(卡巴拉汀)和瑞米尼(加兰他敏)均为此类药物[ Rogers et al 1998, Farlow et al 2000, Raskind et al 2000, Feldman et al 2001, Mohs et al 2001, Seltzer et al 2004]。

美金刚,一种NMDA受体拮抗剂,被允许用于AD治疗[ Reisberg et al 2003]。

抑郁、易激惹、睡眠障碍、癫痫和幻觉需要药物和行为管理。应该使用合适的药物治疗抑郁和癫痫。

理疗和职业治疗对步态障碍和日常生活活动有益。

监管

应每月随访以识别和管理继发并发症。

应避免的药物/环境

应避免气温的集聚变化和过度镇静。

风险亲属的评估

风险亲属遗传咨询相关事宜见遗传咨询( Genetic Counseling)

在研治疗方法

非甾体类抗炎药物(NSAIDs),降血脂药物,维生素E,β分泌酶抑制剂和β淀粉样蛋白“疫苗”等可能治疗AD的方法正在研究中[ Lahiri et al 2003]。目前,上述治疗方法尚未在EOFAD患者中进行系统评估。

一种用于治疗晚发型AD的Aβ42蛋白淀粉样蛋白疫苗的临床试验被终止,因为使用此疫苗的6%的患者出现了脑炎[ Holmes et al 2008]。

一种抗Aβ的单克隆抗体的临床试验结果显示无明显疗效[ Salloway et al 2009]。

一种γ-分泌酶抑制剂(tarenflurbil)的临床试验结果显示无效[ Green et al 2009]。

NSAIDs治疗AD的回顾性研究结果不统一,一些显示可能有保护作用[ Vlad et al 2008],而另一些显示无保护作用[ Breitner et al 2009]。

查询 Clinical Trials.gov 了解更多疾病的临床试验信息。

 

遗传咨询

遗传咨询是一个为患者和家庭提供疾病本质、遗传性和遗传疾病意义等信息并帮助他们做出知情的医疗和私人决定的过程。以下部分是关于遗传风险评估以及 运用家族史和基因检测来了解家庭成员遗传状态的内容。这部分内容不能用于阐明咨询者需面对所有的私人、文化或道德问题,也不能替代遗传专家咨询。—ED.

遗传模式

早发型家族性AD以常染色体显性遗传( )方式传递。

家庭成员患病风险

先证者( )父母

  • 大多数诊断为EOFAD的患者( )的父亲或母亲有一人受累。由于EOFAD的典型起病年龄为成年早期,且疾病进展迅速,因此在确立下一代的诊断时,他们的受累的父亲或母亲可能已去世。
  • 少数情况,患者的父母可能均不受累,但其二级亲属( ),包括叔叔、阿姨和祖父母可能患EOFAD。
  • 患EOFAD的先证者( )可能因为新生基因( )突变致病,尽管此种情况尚未有报道。

注意:尽管大多数EOFAD患者的父亲和母亲中有一人受累( ),但可能因为未能识别家庭成员的疾病状态或父母早逝或外显率降低( )等原因而显示为家族史阴性。

先证者( )的兄弟姐妹

  • 先证者兄弟姐妹的患病风险取决于父母的遗传状态。
  • 如果先证者( )的父亲或母亲受累( )或携带致病性突变,则先证者的兄弟姐妹携带突变的风险为50%。
  • 如果先证者的父母不受累,则先证者( )的兄弟姐妹患病风险极低。

先证者( )后代。先证者后代有50%的风险遗传改变的基因( )。

先证者( )的其他家庭成员。先证者的其他家庭成员的患病风险取决于先证者父母的遗传状态。如果先证者的父亲或母亲受累( ),则其家庭成员有患病风险。 

遗传咨询相关事宜

明显新生()突变的家系中需考虑:当先证者()父母均未携带常染色体显性 ( )状态的致病性突变,则先证者有可能携带新生突变。但是,也可探索一些非医学解释如非生物学父亲( )或母亲(如辅助生殖)或保密的收养等信息。

家庭计划

  • 了解遗传风险和携带者状态,讨论产前诊断的适用性的最佳时间是孕前。 相似的,决定是否对有风险的无症状的家庭成员进行检测以了解其遗传状态的最佳时间也是孕前。
  • 对患者( )或有风险患EOFAD的年轻人提供遗传咨询( )是合理的,包括遗传给后代的风险以及生育选择等。

风险无症状成人的检测。对有风险但无症状的成年人进行 PSEN1(早老素-1), PSEN2(早老素-2)和 APP基因突变检测以了解其患病分析是可行的。但这种检测不能用于预测无症状个体的起病年龄、严重程度、症状类型或进展速度等。当检测有风险个体时,应首先检测家系中的患者 ( )以确诊分子遗传学诊断。在有可以症状的风险个体中检测到致病性突变不能证明和提示可疑的症状与发现的突变有关。

对没有明确症状的个体进行致病性突变检测时,考虑预测性检测。

有 患病风险的无症状成年家庭成员可能因为私人原因如生育、经济事务和职业规划等而寻找遗传检测。其他人也有不同的目的包括单纯的“想知道”等原因。对有患病 风险的无症状成年家庭成员进行检测之前进行检测前沟通以对要求检查的目的、对EOFAD的了解程度、阳性或阴性结果可能带来的影响以及神经心理状态等进行 评估。要求检测的个体应该被建议他们可能遇到的健康、生活、残疾保险责任范围、雇佣、教育歧视以及社会和家庭互动等方面的事项。其他需考虑的事项包括其他 家庭成员风险状态的提示。对这种检测建议知情同意,而且应遵守充足的程序以确保检测结果的保密性,并应确保长期的随访和评估安排。在一项21名有患 EOFAD或 MAPT基因相关疾病( MAPT-related disorders)的个体的研究中, Steinbart et al [2001] 等人报道大多数进行 症状前检测的个体表现出有效的应对技能;但长期的影响未知。

有患病风险的个体儿童时期检测。共识认为有患成年时期起病的疾病患病风险的个体如果儿童时期无症状,则不应在儿童时期进行检测。这 一项原则反对检测对无症状个体儿童时期进行检测的原因为它剥夺了个体选择知道或不知道信息的权利,它增加了家庭内和一些社交情况下的谴责的可能性,并且它 可能有严肃的教育和职业提示。 获取更多的信息,见国家遗传咨询协会针对成人发病型疾病遗传咨询的说明( position statement)以及美国儿科学会和美国医学遗传学和基因组学学院政策说明 ( policy statement):儿童遗传检测和筛选的道德和政策事项。

DNA 银行是指将DNA(通常来自血液白细胞)进行储存,以备将来使用。由于检测技术记忆人们对基因、等位基因变异和疾病的了解在将来极有可能优化,因此应考虑将受累患者的DNA进行保留储存。

产前检测

如果家系中已检测出致病性突变,对风险增加的孕妇进行产前检测( )时可行的,方法包括从羊水中分离胚胎细胞提取DNA(通常在胎龄15-18周进行)或绒毛膜绒毛取样(通常在胎龄10-12周进行)。

注意:胎龄按最后一次月经的第一天计算,或根据超声测量结果。

要求对成年时期起病的疾病如EOFAD进行产前检测的情况不常见。医生专业角度和家属对于产前检测的观念不同,尤其当检测的目的为用于终止妊娠而不是早期诊断时。虽然大多数检测中心对于产检检测的决定依从父母的选择,但与家属讨论是恰当的。

胚胎植入前遗传检测(PGD)和 胚胎移植已经被用于一名携带 APP基因致病性突变的30岁无症状妇女并使其成功受孕,生出一名不携带她和她的家系中检测到的致病性突变的健康婴儿[ Verlinsky et al 2002]。 Towner & Loewy [2002]Spriggs [2002] 认为在父母和卫生保健提供者之间存在一些伦理道德问题。

胚胎植入前遗传检测可作为已检出致病性突变的家系的选择。

 

资源

GeneReviews 工作人员选择了一下疾病针对性和/或支持机构和/或患者和家庭登记机构。Genereview不为其他机构提供的信息负责。了解选择标准,请点击here

 

  • 阿尔兹海默协会

  • 225 North Michigan Avenue
    Fl 17
    Chicago IL 60601-7633
    Phone:800-272-3900 (Toll-free 24/7 Helpline); 866-403-3073 (Toll-free 24/7 Helpline - TDD); 312-335-8700
    Fax:866-335-5886 (toll-free)
    Email:info@alz.org
  • 阿尔兹海默病教育和转诊中心(ADEAR)
    PO Box 8250
    Silver Spring MD 20907
    Phone:800-438-4380 (toll-free)
    Fax:301-495-3334
    Email:adear@alzheimers.org
  • NCBI 基因和疾病
  • 国家老年研究所
    31 Center Drive
    Building 31, Room 5C27
    MSC 2292
    Bethesda MD 20892
    Phone:301-496-1752; 800-222-2225 (toll-free); 800-222-4225 (toll-free TTY)
    Fax:301-496-1072
  • 国家图书馆医学遗传学参考
 

分子遗传学

分子遗传学OMIM表格提供的信息可能与Genereview其他地方提到的可能不同:表格涵盖更多最新研究。 —ED.

表 B.

早发型家族性阿尔兹海默病OMIM路径 (OMIM中查询全部 View All in OMIM

View in own window

104300阿尔兹海默病;AD
104311早老素1;PSEN1
104760β淀粉样A4前体蛋白;APP
600759早老素2;PSEN2
6068894型阿尔兹海默病;AD4
6078223型阿尔兹海默病;AD3

APP

基因结构。APP基因含19个外显子,编码含695-770个氨基酸的大前体蛋,前体蛋白可被蛋白酶裂解形成淀粉样蛋白多肽。APP转录本的命名通常依据编码的氨基酸数目而来,比如,APP770转录本或 NM_000484.2.。β淀粉样多肽部分由16号和17号外显子编码;这两个外显子编码氨基酸655-737。更多关于基因和蛋白的详细总结,见表A( Table A), 基因Gene

致病性等位基因变异。最常见的 APP基因突变为p.Val717Ile。这个密码子改变也可能会引起苯丙氨酸和甘氨酸互换。16号外显子中两个核苷酸的插入缺失(插入和缺失, )c.2010_2011delinsTC也被称作瑞典突变(见表2 Table 2)。

APP基因重复突变( )在少数家系中有报道(见基因型-表型相关性 Genotype-Phenotype Correlations)。

表2.

摘选 APP 致病性突变

View in own window

DNA 核苷酸改变蛋白氨基酸改变参考序列
c.2149G>Ap.Val717IleNM_000484 ​.2
NP_000475 ​.1
c.2010_2011delinsTCp.Lys670_Met671delinsAsnLeu
c.2075C>Gp.Ala692Gly  1
c.2018C>Tp.Ala673Val  1
c.2078A>G  2p.Glu693Gly  1,  2

变异分类注意事项:表中列举的变异由相应作者提供。GeneReviews员工未单独验证变异的分类。
命名注意事项:GeneReviews命名根据Human Genome Variation Society标准命名准则 ( varnomen.hgvs.org)。命名解释见 Quick Reference
1. 见基因型-表型相关性 Genotype-Phenotype Correlations
2. 与荷兰型脑出血淀粉样变性相关的突变。

正常基因产物( )。由于选择性剪接( ), APP基因编码的蛋白-β-淀粉样A4蛋白,含695-770个氨基酸。其中一段含57个氨基酸的部分与Kunitz型蛋白酶抑制剂同源。在外周组织中, APP基因的主要转录本 为APP751和APP770。β淀粉样多肽含38-42个氨基酸且位于蛋白的跨膜区域( )。β淀粉样A4蛋白的β淀粉样多肽序列可被一种α分泌酶裂解,因此去除β淀粉样蛋白聚集的可能性。然而,β淀粉样蛋白也可以被β和γ分泌酶裂解,引起β淀粉样蛋白聚集。

异常基因产物( )。裂解不平衡可产生过量的更长片段的β淀粉样蛋白亚型( ),使其具有神经毒性和易自身聚集的特性。 

PSEN1

基因结构。PSEN1的编码区 ( coding region) 由3号外显子-12号外显子这10个外显子构成。8号外显子和部分3号外显子( )可被选择性剪接,因此早老素-1蛋白被推断可能有更短的亚型( )。选择性剪接( )也可能在10号和11号外显子之间引进一个新的外显子。 PSEN1PSEN2 具有高度同源性。更多关于基因和蛋白的详细总结,见表A Table A,基因 Gene

致病性等位基因突变。More t在超过50个EOFAD患者家系中报道了超过40种与此疾病相关的突变[ Cruts et al 1998, Cruts & Van Broeckhoven 1998, Poorkaj et al 1998, Larner & Doran 2006]。这些突变大部分为错义( )突变。一个例外情况为:一个突变可引起剪接位点( )消失,因此引起9号外显子丢失,但不改变阅读框,预测编码的蛋白比正常蛋白少29个氨基酸。在芬兰人种中也发现了一个跨9号外显子的基因组缺失( deletion)。在6号和7号跨膜区域之间至少有9个突变发生在细胞浆区域( ),其余的突变位于其他疏水区或亲水/疏水结合区,尤其是2号跨膜区。8号外显子选择性剪接的位于细胞浆内的区域中突变相对更常见,说明蛋白质的这一区域具有重要功能( 见表3 Table 3)。

表3.

摘选 PSEN1致病性突变

View in own window

DNA核苷酸改变蛋白质氨基酸改变参考序列
c.236C>Tp.Ala79Val  1NM_000021 ​.3
NP_000012 ​.1
c.265G>Tp.Val89Leu  1
c.338T>Cp.Leu113Pro  1
c.415A>Gp.Met139Val  1
c.436A>Cp.Met146Leu
c.509C>Tp.Ser170Phe  1
c.548G>Tp.Gly183Val
c.697A>Gp.Met233Val  1
c.767A>Cp.Tyr256Ser  1
c.806G>Ap.Arg269His  1
c.839A>Cp.Glu280Ala  2
c.1175T>Cp.Leu392Pro  1
c.1292C>Ap.Ala431Glu
9号外显子4,555个碱基对缺失( deletion) 见下标1和3
 

变异分类注意事项:表中列举的变异由相应作者提供。GeneReviews员工未单独验证变异的分类。

 

命名注意事项:GeneReviews命名根据Human Genome Variation Society标准命名准则 ( varnomen.hgvs.org)。命名解释见 Quick Reference

 

1.见基因型-表型相关性 Genotype-Phenotype Correlations

 

2. 见患病率 Prevalence

 

正常基因产物( gene product)。预测 PSEN1编码含467个氨基酸的蛋白质,含7-10个(可能为8个)疏水性跨膜区。早老素-1与早老素-2高度同源;两者最大不同的在于两个大的疏水环的位置,一个位于氨基酸末端,另一个位于第六和第七跨膜区之间的胞浆区( )[ Tandon & Fraser 2002]。胞浆区含有一个蛋白酶裂解位点[ Podlisny et al 1997]。早老素蛋白是SEL-12的功能同族,SEL-12是一种促进 Notch/LIN-12受体家族介导的信号通路的C线虫蛋白[ Wong et al 1997]。早老素也有部分β淀粉样A4蛋白的γ分泌酶裂解系统的功能。 PSEN1基因敲除的老鼠在子宫内即死亡并伴有严重的骨骼异常[ Shen et al 1997]。早老素1除了裂解β淀粉样A4蛋白以外,还可裂解其他蛋白[ Thinakaran & Parent 2004]。

异常基因产物()。PSEN1基因异常导致更长片段的β淀粉样蛋白亚型产生增加,使其具有神经毒性和自我聚集的倾向[ Jankowsky et al 2004]。一些突变可导致早老素-1失去γ分分泌酶的功能[ De Strooper 2007, Shen & Kelleher 2007]。

PSEN2

基因结构。PSEN2与PSEN2高度同源。它在一个跨23737个碱基对的基因组( )区域内含12个外显子。1号和2号外显子编码5‘末端非编码区。 更多关于基因和蛋白的详细总结,见表A Table A,基因 Gene

致病性等位基因变异。在伏尔加河德裔FAD家系中曾发现p.Asn141Ile突变,证实了这一人群的建立者效应( )。另一个突变p.Met239Val在意大利FAD家系中被报道[ Rogaev et al 1995, Marcon et al 2004] (见表4 Table 4)。一些其他的可能致病性突变也有报道[ Beyer et al 1998, Cruts & Van Broeckhoven 1998, Tedde et al 2003, Zekanowski et al 2003]。

表4.

摘选 PSEN2 致病性突变

View in own window

DNA核苷酸改变蛋白质氨基酸改变参考序列
c.422A>Tp.Asn141Ile  1NM_000447 ​.2
NP_000438 ​.2
c.717G>Ap.Met239Val
 

变异分类注意事项:表中列举的变异由相应作者提供。GeneReviews员工未单独验证变异的分类。

 

命名注意事项:GeneReviews命名根据Human Genome Variation Society标准命名准则 ( varnomen.hgvs.org)。命名解释见 Quick Reference

 

1. 见患病率 Prevalence

正常基因产物( )。预测 PSEN2基因编码含448个氨基酸且与早老素-1高度同源的蛋白质。 早老素-2被认为有8个跨膜区。早老素-1与早老素-2高度同源;两者最大不同的在于两个大的疏水环的位置,一个位于氨基酸末端,另一个位于第六和第七跨膜区之间的胞浆区 [ Uemura et al 2003, Thinakaran & Parent 2004]。

异常基因产物( )。推测可能与 PSEN1基因突变产物相似[ Jankowsky et al 2004, Walker et al 2005, De Strooper 2007]。

 

参考文献

Published Guidelines/Consensus Statements

  • Committee on Bioethics, Committee on Genetics, and American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics Social, Ethical, Legal Issues Committee. Ethical and policy issues in genetic testing and screening of children. Available online. 2013. Accessed 2-18-15. [ PubMed : 23428972]
  • National Society of Genetic Counselors. Position statement on genetic testing of minors for adult-onset disorders. Available online. 2012. Accessed 4-7-14.

Literature Cited

  • Ataka S, Tomiyama T, Takuma H, Yamashita T, Shimada H, Tsutada T, Kawabata K, Mori H, Miki T. A novel presenilin-1 mutation (Leu85Pro) in early-onset Alzheimer disease with spastic paraparesis. Arch Neurol.2004; 61:1773–6.[ PubMed : 15534188]
  • Athan ES, Williamson J, Ciappa A, Santana V, Romas SN, Lee JH, Rondon H, Lantigua RA, Medrano M, Torres M, Arawaka S, Rogaeva E, Song YQ, Sato C, Kawarai T, Fafel KC, Boss MA, Seltzer WK, Stern Y, St George-Hyslop P, Tycko B, Mayeux R. A founder mutation in presenilin 1 causing early-onset Alzheimer disease in unrelated Caribbean Hispanic families. JAMA.2001; 286:2257–63.[ PubMed : 11710891]
  • Basun H, Bogdanovic N, Ingelsson M, Almkvist O, Näslund J, Axelman K, Bird TD, Nochlin D, Schellenberg GD, Wahlund LO, Lannfelt L. Clinical and neuropathological features of the arctic APP gene mutation causing early-onset Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol.2008; 65:499–505.[ PMC free article : PMC2723757] [ PubMed : 18413473]
  • Bateman RJ, Xiong C, Benzinger TL, Fagan AM, Goate A, Fox NC, Marcus DS, Cairns NJ, Xie X, Blazey TM, Holtzman DM, Santacruz A, Buckles V, Oliver A, Moulder K, Aisen PS, Ghetti B, Klunk WE, McDade E, Martins RN, Masters CL, Mayeux R, Ringman JM, Rossor MN, Schofield PR, Sperling RA, Salloway S, Morris JC. Dominantly Inherited Alzheimer Network.; Clinical and biomarker changes in dominantly inherited Alzheimer's disease. N Engl J Med.2012; 367:795–804.[ PMC free article : PMC3474597] [ PubMed : 22784036]
  • Beck JA, Poulter M, Campbell TA, Uphill JB, Adamson G, Geddes JF, Revesz T, Davis MB, Wood NW, Collinge J, Tabrizi SJ. Somatic and germline mosaicism in sporadic early-onset Alzheimer's disease. Hum Mol Genet.2004; 13:1219–24.[ PubMed : 15115757]
  • Beyer K, Lao JI, Fernandez-Novoa L. et al. Identification of a novel mutation (V148I) in the TM2 domain of the presenilin 2 gene in a patient with late-onset AD. Neurobiol Aging.1998; 19Suppl 2:587.
  • Bird TD, Lampe TH, Nemens EJ, Miner GW, Sumi SM, Schellenberg GD. Familial Alzheimer's disease in American descendants of the Volga Germans: probable genetic founder effect. Ann Neurol.1988; 23:25–31.[ PubMed : 3345066]
  • Bird TD, Levy-Lahad E, Poorkaj P, Sharma V, Nemens E, Lahad A, Lampe TH, Schellenberg GD. Wide range in age of onset for chromosome 1--related familial Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol.1996; 40:932–6.[ PubMed : 9007102]
  • Blom ES, Viswanathan J, Kilander L, Helisalmi S, Soininen H, Lannfelt L, Ingelsson M, Glaser A, Hiltunen M. Low prevalence of APP duplications in Swedish and Finnish patients with early-onset Alzheimer's disease. Eur J Hum Genet.2008; 16:171–5.[ PubMed : 18043715]
  • Breitner JC, Haneuse SJ, Walker R, Dublin S, Crane PK, Gray SL, Larson EB. Risk of dementia and AD with prior exposure to NSAIDs in an elderly community-based cohort. Neurology.2009; 72:1899–905.[ PMC free article : PMC2690966] [ PubMed : 19386997]
  • Brickell KL, Leverenz JB, Steinbart EJ, Rumbaugh M, Schellenberg GD, Nochlin D, Lampe TH, Holm IE, Van Deerlin V, Yuan W, Bird TD. Clinicopathological concordance and discordance in three monozygotic twin pairs with familial Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry.2007; 78:1050–5.[ PMC free article : PMC2117553] [ PubMed : 17615170]
  • Brickell KL, Steinbart EJ, Rumbaugh M, Payami H, Schellenberg GD, Van Deerlin V, Yuan W, Bird TD. Early-onset Alzheimer disease in families with late-onset Alzheimer disease: a potential important subtype of familial Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol.2006; 63:1307–11.[ PubMed : 16966510]
  • Brooks WS, Kwok JB, Kril JJ, Broe GA, Blumbergs PC, Tannenberg AE, Lamont PJ, Hedges P, Schofield PR. Alzheimer's disease with spastic paraparesis and 'cotton wool' plaques: two pedigrees with PS-1 exon 9 deletions. Brain.2003; 126:783–91.[ PubMed : 12615638]
  • Campion D, Dumanchin C, Hannequin D, Dubois B, Belliard S, Puel M, Thomas-Anterion C, Michon A, Martin C, Charbonnier F, Raux G, Camuzat A, Penet C, Mesnage V, Martinez M, Clerget-Darpoux F, Brice A, Frebourg T. Early-onset autosomal dominant Alzheimer disease: prevalence, genetic heterogeneity, and mutation spectrum. Am J Hum Genet.1999; 65:664–70.[ PMC free article : PMC1377972] [ PubMed : 10441572]
  • Clare L. We'll fight it as long as we can: coping with the onset of Alzheimer's disease. Aging Ment Health.2002; 6:139–48.[ PubMed : 12028882]
  • Crook R, Verkkoniemi A, Perez-Tur J, Mehta N, Baker M, Houlden H, Farrer M, Hutton M, Lincoln S, Hardy J, Gwinn K, Somer M, Paetau A, Kalimo H, Ylikoski R, Pöyhönen M, Kucera S, Haltia M. A variant of Alzheimer's disease with spastic paraparesis and unusual plaques due to deletion of exon 9 of presenilin 1. Nat Med.1998; 4:452–5.[ PubMed : 9546792]
  • Cruts M, Van Broeckhoven C. Presenilin mutations in Alzheimer's disease. Hum Mutat.1998; 11:183–90.[ PubMed : 9521418]
  • Cruts M, van Duijn CM, Backhovens H, Van den Broeck M, Wehnert A, Serneels S, Sherrington R, Hutton M, Hardy J, St George-Hyslop PH, Hofman A, Van Broeckhoven C. Estimation of the genetic contribution of presenilin-1 and -2 mutations in a population-based study of presenile Alzheimer disease. Hum Mol Genet.1998; 7:43–51.[ PubMed : 9384602]
  • Cummings JL, Vinters HV, Cole GM, Khachaturian ZS. Alzheimer's disease: etiologies, pathophysiology, cognitive reserve, and treatment opportunities. Neurology.1998; 51:S2–17.[ PubMed : 9674758]
  • De Strooper B. Loss-of-function presenilin mutations in Alzheimer disease. Talking point on the role of presenilin mutations in Alzheimer disease. EMBO Rep.2007; 8:141–6.[ PMC free article : PMC1796779] [ PubMed : 17268505]
  • Dermaut B, Kumar-Singh S, Engelborghs S, Theuns J, Rademakers R, Saerens J, Pickut BA, Peeters K, van den Broeck M, Vennekens K, Claes S, Cruts M, Cras P, Martin JJ, Van Broeckhoven C, De Deyn PP. A novel presenilin 1 mutation associated with Pick's disease but not beta-amyloid plaques. Ann Neurol.2004; 55:617–26.[ PubMed : 15122701]
  • Di Fede G, Catania M, Morbin M, Rossi G, Suardi S, Mazzoleni G, Merlin M, Giovagnoli AR, Prioni S, Erbetta A, Falcone C, Gobbi M, Colombo L, Bastone A, Beeg M, Manzoni C, Francescucci B, Spagnoli A, Cantù L, Del Favero E, Levy E, Salmona M, Tagliavini F. A recessive mutation in the APP gene with dominant-negative effect on amyloidogenesis. Science.2009; 323:1473–7.[ PMC free article : PMC2728497] [ PubMed : 19286555]
  • Farlow M, Anand R, Messina J, Hartman R, Veach J. A 52-week study of the efficacy of rivastigmine in patients with mild to moderately severe Alzheimer's disease. Eur Neurol.2000; 44:236–41.[ PubMed : 11096224]
  • Feldman H, Gauthier S, Hecker J, Vellas B, Subbiah P, Whalen E. Donepezil MSAD Study Investigators Group; A 24-week, randomized, double-blind study of donepezil in moderate to severe Alzheimer's disease. Neurology.2001; 57:613–20.[ PubMed : 11524468]
  • Finckh U, Alberici A, Antoniazzi M, Benussi L, Fedi V, Giannini C, Gal A, Nitsch RM, Binetti G. Variable expression of familial Alzheimer disease associated with presenilin 2 mutation M239I. Neurology.2000; 54:2006–8.[ PubMed : 10822446]
  • Fox NC, Kennedy AM, Harvey RJ, Lantos PL, Roques PK, Collinge J, Hardy J, Hutton M, Stevens JM, Warrington EK, Rossor MN. Clinicopathological features of familial Alzheimer's disease associated with the M139V mutation in the presenilin 1 gene. Pedigree but not mutation specific age at onset provides evidence for a further genetic factor. Brain.1997; 120:491–501.[ PubMed : 9126060]
  • Furuya H, Yasuda M, Terasawa KJ, Tanaka K, Murai H, Kira J, Ohyagi Y. A novel mutation (L250V) in the presenilin 1 gene in a Japanese familial Alzheimer's disease with myoclonus and generalized convulsion. J Neurol Sci.2003; 209:75–7.[ PubMed : 12686406]
  • Giaccone G, Morbin M, Moda F, Botta M, Mazzoleni G, Uggetti A, Catania M, Moro ML, Redaelli V, Spagnoli A, Rossi RS, Salmona M, Di Fede G, Tagliavini F. Neuropathology of the recessive A673V APP mutation: Alzheimer disease with distinctive features. Acta Neuropathol.2010; 120:803–12.[ PubMed : 20842367]
  • Godbolt AK, Cipolotti L, Watt H, Fox NC, Janssen JC, Rossor MN. The natural history of Alzheimer disease: a longitudinal presymptomatic and symptomatic study of a familial cohort. Arch Neurol.2004; 61:1743–8.[ PubMed : 15534185]
  • Gómez-Isla T, Growdon WB, McNamara MJ, Nochlin D, Bird TD, Arango JC, Lopera F, Kosik KS, Lantos PL, Cairns NJ, Hyman BT. The impact of different presenilin 1 andpresenilin 2 mutations on amyloid deposition, neurofibrillary changes and neuronal loss in the familial Alzheimer's disease brain: evidence for other phenotype-modifying factors. Brain.1999; 122:1709–19.[ PubMed : 10468510]
  • Green RC, Schneider LS, Amato DA, Beelen AP, Wilcock G, Swabb EA, Zavitz KH. Effect of tarenflurbil on cognitive decline and activities of daily living in patients with mild Alzheimer disease: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA.2009; 302:2557–64.[ PMC free article : PMC2902875] [ PubMed : 20009055]
  • Gustafson L, Brun A, Englund E, Hagnell O, Nilsson K, Stensmyr M, Ohlin AK, Abrahamson M. A 50-year perspective of a family with chromosome-14-linked Alzheimer's disease. Hum Genet.1998; 102:253–7.[ PubMed : 9544835]
  • Guyant-Marechal I, Berger E, Laquerrière A, Rovelet-Lecrux A, Viennet G, Frebourg T, Rumbach L, Campion D, Hannequin D. Intrafamilial diversity of phenotype associated with app duplication. Neurology.2008; 71:1925–6.[ PubMed : 19047566]
  • Halliday GM, Song YJ, Lepar G, Brooks WS, Kwok JB, Kersaitis C, Gregory G, Shepherd CE, Rahimi F, Schofield PR, Kril JJ. Pick bodies in a family with presenilin-1 Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol.2005; 57:139–43.[ PubMed : 15622541]
  • Hattori S, Sakuma K, Wakutani Y, Wada K, Shimoda M, Urakami K, Kowa H, Nakashima K. A novel presenilin 1 mutation (Y154N) in a patient with early onset Alzheimer's disease with spastic paraparesis. Neurosci Lett.2004; 368:319–22.[ PubMed : 15364419]
  • Heckmann JM, Low WC, de Villiers C, Rutherfoord S, Vorster A, Rao H, Morris CM, Ramesar RS, Kalaria RN. Novel presenilin 1 mutation with profound neurofibrillary pathology in an indigenous Southern African family with early-onset Alzheimer's disease. Brain.2004; 127:133–42.[ PubMed : 14570818]
  • Holmes C, Boche D, Wilkinson D, Yadegarfar G, Hopkins V, Bayer A, Jones RW, Bullock R, Love S, Neal JW, Zotova E, Nicoll JA. Long-term effects of Abeta42 immunisation in Alzheimer's disease: follow-up of a randomised, placebo-controlled phase I trial. Lancet.2008; 372:216–23.[ PubMed : 18640458]
  • Jankowsky JL, Fadale DJ, Anderson J, Xu GM, Gonzales V, Jenkins NA, Copeland NG, Lee MK, Younkin LH, Wagner SL, Younkin SG, Borchelt DR. Mutant presenilins specifically elevate the levels of the 42 residue beta-amyloid peptide in vivo: evidence for augmentation of a 42-specific gamma secretase. Hum Mol Genet.2004; 13:159–70.[ PubMed : 14645205]
  • Janssen JC, Beck JA, Campbell TA, Dickinson A, Fox NC, Harvey RJ, Houlden H, Rossor MN, Collinge J. Early onset familial Alzheimer's disease: Mutation frequency in 31 families. Neurology.2003; 60:235–9.[ PubMed : 12552037]
  • Jayadev S, Leverenz JB, Steinbart E, Stahl J, Klunk W, Yu CE, Bird TD. Alzheimer's disease phenotypes and genotypes associated with mutations in presenilin 2. Brain.2010; 133:1143–54.[ PMC free article : PMC2850581] [ PubMed : 20375137]
  • Kauwe JS, Jacquart S, Chakraverty S, Wang J, Mayo K, Fagan AM, Holtzman DM, Morris JC, Goate AM. Extreme cerebrospinal fluid amyloid beta levels identify family with late-onset Alzheimer's disease presenilin 1 mutation. Ann Neurol.2007; 61:446–53.[ PubMed : 17366635]
  • Klunk WE, Price JC, Mathis CA, Tsopelas ND, Lopresti BJ, Ziolko SK, Bi W, Hoge JA, Cohen AD, Ikonomovic MD, Saxton JA, Snitz BE, Pollen DA, Moonis M, Lippa CF, Swearer JM, Johnson KA, Rentz DM, Fischman AJ, Aizenstein HJ, DeKosky ST. Amyloid deposition begins in the striatum of presenilin-1 mutation carriers from two unrelated pedigrees. J Neurosci.2007; 27:6174–84.[ PMC free article : PMC3265970] [ PubMed : 17553989]
  • Kowalska A, Wender M, Florczak J, Pruchnik-Wolinska D, Modestowicz R, Szczech J, Rossa G, Kozubski W. Molecular genetics of Alzheimer's disease: presenilin 1 gene analysis in a cohort of patients from the Poznań region. J Appl Genet.2003; 44:231–4.[ PubMed : 12817569]
  • Lahiri DK, Farlow MR, Sambamurti K, Greig NH, Giacobini E, Schneider LS. A critical analysis of new molecular targets and strategies for drug developments in Alzheimer's disease. Curr Drug Targets.2003; 4:97–112.[ PubMed : 12558063]
  • Larner AJ, Doran M. Clinical phenotypic heterogeneity of Alzheimer's disease associated with mutations of the presenilin-1 gene. J Neurol.2006; 253:139–58.[ PubMed : 16267640]
  • Larner AJ, Ray PS, Doran M. The R269H mutation in presenilin-1 presenting as late-onset autosomal dominant Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol Sci.2007; 252:173–6.[ PubMed : 17188713]
  • Leverenz JB, Fishel MA, Peskind ER, Montine TJ, Nochlin D, Steinbart E, Raskind MA, Schellenberg GD, Bird TD, Tsuang D. Lewy body pathology in familial Alzheimer disease: evidence for disease- and mutation-specific pathologic phenotype. Arch Neurol.2006; 63:370–6.[ PMC free article : PMC1892620] [ PubMed : 16533963]
  • Li D, Parks SB, Kushner JD, Nauman D, Burgess D, Ludwigsen S, Partain J, Nixon RR, Allen CN, Irwin RP, Jakobs PM, Litt M, Hershberger RE. Mutations of presenilin genes in dilated cardiomyopathy and heart failure. Am J Hum Genet.2006; 79:1030–9.[ PMC free article : PMC1698711] [ PubMed : 17186461]
  • Lippa CF, Swearer JM, Kane KJ, Nochlin D, Bird TD, Ghetti B, Nee LE, St George-Hyslop P, Pollen DA, Drachman DA. Familial Alzheimer's disease: site of mutation influences clinical phenotype. Ann Neurol.2000; 48:376–9.[ PubMed : 10976645]
  • Lleó A, Blesa R, Gendre J, Castellví M, Pastor P, Queralt R, Oliva R. A novel presenilin 2 gene mutation (D439A) in a patient with early-onset Alzheimer's disease. Neurology.2001; 57:1926–8.[ PubMed : 11723295]
  • Lleó A, Blesa R, Queralt R, Ezquerra M, Molinuevo JL, Peña-Casanova J, Rojo A, Oliva R. Frequency of mutations in the presenilin and amyloid precursor protein genes in early-onset Alzheimer disease in Spain. Arch Neurol.2002; 59:1759–63.[ PubMed : 12433263]
  • Maarouf CL, Daugs ID, Spina S, Vidal R, Kokjohn TA, Patton RL, Kalback WM, Luehrs DC, Walker DG, Castaño EM, Beach TG, Ghetti B, Roher AE. Histopathological and molecular heterogeneity among individuals with dementia associated with Presenilin mutations. Mol Neurodegener.2008; 3:20.[ PMC free article : PMC2600784] [ PubMed : 19021905]
  • Mann DM, Iwatsubo T, Nochlin D, Sumi SM, Levy-Lahad E, Bird TD. Amyloid (Abeta) deposition in chromosome 1-linked Alzheimer's disease: the Volga German families. Ann Neurol.1997; 41:52–7.[ PubMed : 9005865]
  • Marcon G, Giaccone G, Cupidi C, Balestrieri M, Beltrami CA, Finato N, Bergonzi P, Sorbi S, Bugiani O, Tagliavini F. Neuropathological and clinical phenotype of an Italian Alzheimer family with M239V mutation of presenilin 2 gene. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol.2004; 63:199–209.[ PubMed : 15055444]
  • Menéndez M. Pathological and clinical heterogeneity of presenilin 1 gene mutations. J Alzheimers Dis.2004; 6:475–82.[ PubMed : 15505368]
  • Miklossy J, Taddei K, Suva D, Verdile G, Fonte J, Fisher C, Gnjec A, Ghika J, Suard F, Mehta PD, McLean CA, Masters CL, Brooks WS, Martins RN. Two novel presenilin-1 mutations (Y256S and Q222H) are associated with early-onset Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging.2003; 24:655–62.[ PubMed : 12885573]
  • Mohs RC, Doody RS, Morris JC, Ieni JR, Rogers SL, Perdomo CA, Pratt RD. A 1-year, placebo-controlled preservation of function survival study of donepezil in AD patients. Neurology.2001; 57:481–8.[ PubMed : 11502917]
  • Moonis M, Swearer JM, Dayaw MP, St George-Hyslop P, Rogaeva E, Kawarai T, Pollen DA. Familial Alzheimer disease: decreases in CSF Abeta42 levels precede cognitive decline. Neurology.2005; 65:323–5.[ PubMed : 16043812]
  • National Institute on Aging Working Group; Consensus report of the Working Group on: "Molecular and Biochemical Markers of Alzheimer's Disease". The Ronald and Nancy Reagan Research Institute of the Alzheimer's Association and the National Institute on Aging Working Group. Neurobiol Aging.1998; 19:109–16.[ PubMed : 9558143]
  • Nikisch G, Hertel A, Kiessling B, Wagner T, Krasz D, Hofmann E, Wiedemann G. Three-year follow-up of a patient with early-onset Alzheimer's disease with presenilin-2 N141I mutation - case report and review of the literature. Eur J Med Res.2008; 13:579–84.[ PubMed : 19073399]
  • Nilsberth C, Westlind-Danielsson A, Eckman CB, Condron MM, Axelman K, Forsell C, Stenh C, Luthman J, Teplow DB, Younkin SG, Näslund J, Lannfelt L. The 'Arctic' APP mutation (E693G) causes Alzheimer's disease by enhanced Abeta protofibril formation. Nat Neurosci.2001; 4:887–93.[ PubMed : 11528419]
  • Pastor P, Roe CM, Villegas A, Bedoya G, Chakraverty S, García G, Tirado V, Norton J, Ríos S, Martínez M, Kosik KS, Lopera F, Goate AM. Apolipoprotein Eepsilon4 modifies Alzheimer's disease onset in an E280A PS1 kindred. Ann Neurol.2003; 54:163–9.[ PubMed : 12891668]
  • Perez-Tur J, Froelich S, Prihar G, Crook R, Baker M, Duff K, Wragg M, Busfield F, Lendon C, Clark RF. et al. A mutation in Alzheimer's disease destroying a splice acceptor site in the presenilin-1 gene. Neuroreport.1995; 7:297–301.[ PubMed : 8742474]
  • Piccini A, Zanusso G, Borghi R, Noviello C, Monaco S, Russo R, Damonte G, Armirotti A, Gelati M, Giordano R, Zambenedetti P, Russo C, Ghetti B, Tabaton M. Association of a presenilin 1 S170F mutation with a novel Alzheimer disease molecular phenotype. Arch Neurol.2007; 64:738–45.[ PubMed : 17502474]
  • Podlisny MB, Citron M, Amarante P, Sherrington R, Xia W, Zhang J, Diehl T, Levesque G, Fraser P, Haass C, Koo EH, Seubert P, St George-Hyslop P, Teplow DB, Selkoe DJ. Presenilin proteins undergo heterogeneous endoproteolysis between Thr291 and Ala299 and occur as stable N- and C-terminal fragments in normal and Alzheimer brain tissue. Neurobiol Dis.1997; 3:325–37.[ PubMed : 9173929]
  • Poorkaj P, Sharma V, Anderson L, Nemens E, Alonso ME, Orr H, White J, Heston L, Bird TD, Schellenberg GD. Missense mutations in the chromosome 14 familial Alzheimer's disease presenilin 1 gene. Hum Mutat.1998; 11:216–21.[ PubMed : 9521423]
  • Prihar G, Verkkoniem A, Perez-Tur J, Crook R, Lincoln S, Houlden H, Somer M, Paetau A, Kalimo H, Grover A, Myllykangas L, Hutton M, Hardy J, Haltia M. Alzheimer disease PS-1 exon 9 deletion defined. Nat Med.1999; 5:1090.[ PubMed : 10502791]
  • Queralt R, Ezquerra M, Lleó A, Castellví M, Gelpí J, Ferrer I, Acarín N, Pasarín L, Blesa R, Oliva R. A novel mutation (V89L) in the presenilin 1 gene in a family with early onset Alzheimer's disease and marked behavioural disturbances. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry.2002; 72:266–9.[ PMC free article : PMC1737723] [ PubMed : 11796781]
  • Raman A, Lin X, Suri M, Hewitt M, Constantinescu CS, Phillips MF. A presenilin 1 mutation (Arg278Ser) associated with early onset Alzheimer's disease and spastic paraparesis. J Neurol Sci.2007; 260:78–82.[ PubMed : 17507029]
  • Raskind MA, Peskind ER, Wessel T, Yuan W. Galantamine in AD: A 6-month randomized, placebo-controlled trial with a 6-month extension. The Galantamine USA-1 Study Group. Neurology.2000; 54:2261–8.[ PubMed : 10881250]
  • Raux G, Gantier R, Thomas-Anterion C, Boulliat J, Verpillat P, Hannequin D, Brice A, Frebourg T, Campion D. Dementia with prominent frontotemporal features associated with L113P presenilin 1 mutation. Neurology.2000; 55:1577–8.[ PubMed : 11094121]
  • Reisberg B, Doody R, Stöffler A, Schmitt F, Ferris S, Möbius HJ. Memantine Study Group; Memantine in moderate-to-severe Alzheimer's disease. N Engl J Med.2003; 348:1333–41.[ PubMed : 12672860]
  • Revesz T, McLaughlin JL, Rossor MN, Lantos PL. Pathology of familial Alzheimer's disease with Lewy bodies. J Neural Transm Suppl.1997; 51:121–35.[ PubMed : 9470133]
  • Ringman JM, Diaz-Olavarrieta C, Rodriguez Y, Chavez M, Fairbanks L, Paz F, Varpetian A, Maldonado HC, Macias-Islas MA, Murrell J, Ghetti B, Kawas C. Neuropsychological function in nondemented carriers of presenilin-1 mutations. Neurology.2005; 65:552–8.[ PMC free article : PMC3373251] [ PubMed : 16116115]
  • Rippon GA, Crook R, Baker M, Halvorsen E, Chin S, Hutton M, Houlden H, Hardy J, Lynch T. Presenilin 1 mutation in an african american family presenting with atypical Alzheimer dementia. Arch Neurol.2003; 60:884–8.[ PubMed : 12810495]
  • Rogaev EI, Sherrington R, Rogaeva EA, Levesque G, Ikeda M, Liang Y, Chi H, Lin C, Holman K, Tsuda T. et al. Familial Alzheimer's disease in kindreds with missense mutations in a gene on chromosome 1 related to the Alzheimer's disease type 3 gene. Nature.1995; 376:775–8.[ PubMed : 7651536]
  • Rogaeva EA, Fafel KC, Song YQ, Medeiros H, Sato C, Liang Y, Richard E, Rogaev EI, Frommelt P, Sadovnick AD, Meschino W, Rockwood K, Boss MA, Mayeux R, St George-Hyslop P. Screening for PS1 mutations in a referral-based series of AD cases: 21 novel mutations. Neurology.2001; 57:621–5.[ PubMed : 11524469]
  • Rogers SL, Farlow MR, Doody RS, Mohs R, Friedhoff LT. A 24-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of donepezil in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Donepezil Study Group. Neurology.1998; 50:136–45.[ PubMed : 9443470]
  • Roks G, Van Harskamp F, De Koning I, Cruts M, De Jonghe C, Kumar-Singh S, Tibben A, Tanghe H, Niermeijer MF, Hofman A, Van Swieten JC, Van Broeckhoven C, Van Duijn CM. Presentation of amyloidosis in carriers of the codon 692 mutation in the amyloid precursor protein gene (APP692). Brain.2000; 123:2130–40.[ PubMed : 11004129]
  • Rovelet-Lecrux A, Hannequin D, Raux G, Le Meur N, Laquerrière A, Vital A, Dumanchin C, Feuillette S, Brice A, Vercelletto M, Dubas F, Frebourg T, Campion D. APP locus duplication causes autosomal dominant early-onset Alzheimer disease with cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Nat Genet.2006; 38:24–6.[ PubMed : 16369530]
  • Salloway S, Sperling R, Gilman S, Fox NC, Blennow K, Raskind M, Sabbagh M, Honig LS, Doody R, van Dyck CH, Mulnard R, Barakos J, Gregg KM, Liu E, Lieberburg I, Schenk D, Black R, Grundman M. Bapineuzumab 201 Clinical Trial Investigators; A phase 2 multiple ascending dose trial of bapineuzumab in mild to moderate Alzheimer disease. Neurology.2009; 73:2061–70.[ PMC free article : PMC2790221] [ PubMed : 19923550]
  • Seltzer B, Zolnouni P, Nunez M, Goldman R, Kumar D, Ieni J, Richardson S. Efficacy of donepezil in early-stage Alzheimer disease: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Arch Neurol.2004; 61:1852–6.[ PubMed : 15596605]
  • Shen J, Bronson RT, Chen DF, Xia W, Selkoe DJ, Tonegawa S. Skeletal and CNS defects in Presenilin-1-deficient mice. Cell.1997; 89:629–39.[ PubMed : 9160754]
  • Shen J, Kelleher RJ. The presenilin hypothesis of Alzheimer's disease: evidence for a loss-of-function pathogenic mechanism. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.2007; 104:403–9.[ PMC free article : PMC1766397] [ PubMed : 17197420]
  • Sleegers K, Brouwers N, Gijselinck I, Theuns J, Goossens D, Wauters J, Del-Favero J, Cruts M, van Duijn CM, Van Broeckhoven C. APP duplication is sufficient to cause early onset Alzheimer's dementia with cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Brain.2006; 129:2977–83.[ PubMed : 16921174]
  • Smith MJ, Kwok JB, McLean CA, Kril JJ, Broe GA, Nicholson GA, Cappai R, Hallupp M, Cotton RG, Masters CL, Schofield PR, Brooks WS. Variable phenotype of Alzheimer's disease with spastic paraparesis. Ann Neurol.2001; 49:125–9.[ PubMed : 11198283]
  • Spriggs M. Genetically selected baby free of inherited predisposition to early-onset Alzheimer's disease. J Med Ethics.2002; 28:290.[ PMC free article : PMC1733660] [ PubMed : 12356954]
  • Steinbart EJ, Smith CO, Poorkaj P, Bird TD. Impact of DNA testing for early-onset familial Alzheimer disease and frontotemporal dementia. Arch Neurol.2001; 58:1828–31.[ PubMed : 11708991]
  • Tandon A, Fraser P. The presenilins. Genome Biol. 2002; 3:reviews3014. [ PMC free article : PMC244923] [ PubMed : 12429067]
  • Tedde A, Forleo P, Nacmias B, Piccini C, Bracco L, Piacentini S, Sorbi S. A presenilin-1 mutation (Leu392Pro) in a familial AD kindred with psychiatric symptoms at onset. Neurology.2000; 55:1590–1.[ PubMed : 11094128]
  • Tedde A, Nacmias B, Ciantelli M, Forleo P, Cellini E, Bagnoli S, Piccini C, Caffarra P, Ghidoni E, Paganini M, Bracco L, Sorbi S. Identification of new presenilin gene mutations in early-onset familial Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol.2003; 60:1541–4.[ PubMed : 14623725]
  • Thinakaran G, Parent AT. Identification of the role of presenilins beyond Alzheimer's disease. Pharmacol Res.2004; 50:411–8.[ PubMed : 15304238]
  • Towner D, Loewy RS. Ethics of preimplantation diagnosis for a woman destined to develop early-onset Alzheimer disease. JAMA.2002; 287:1038–40.[ PubMed : 11866654]
  • Uemura K, Kitagawa N, Kohno R, Kuzuya A, Kageyama T, Chonabayashi K, Shibasaki H, Shimohama S. Presenilin 1 is involved in maturation and trafficking of N-cadherin to the plasma membrane. J Neurosci Res.2003; 74:184–91.[ PubMed : 14515347]
  • Van Broeckhoven CL. Molecular genetics of Alzheimer disease: identification of genes and gene mutations. Eur Neurol.1995; 35:8–19.[ PubMed : 7737252]
  • Verkkoniemi A, Somer M, Rinne JO, Myllykangas L, Crook R, Hardy J, Viitanen M, Kalimo H, Haltia M. Variant Alzheimer's disease with spastic paraparesis: clinical characterization. Neurology.2000; 54:1103–9.[ PubMed : 10720282]
  • Verlinsky Y, Rechitsky S, Verlinsky O, Masciangelo C, Lederer K, Kuliev A. Preimplantation diagnosis for early-onset Alzheimer disease caused by V717L mutation. JAMA.2002; 287:1018–21.[ PubMed : 11866650]
  • Vlad SC, Miller DR, Kowall NW, Felson DT. Protective effects of NSAIDs on the development of Alzheimer disease. Neurology.2008; 70:1672–7.[ PMC free article : PMC2758242] [ PubMed : 18458226]
  • Walker ES, Martinez M, Brunkan AL, Goate A. Presenilin 2 familial Alzheimer's disease mutations result in partial loss of function and dramatic changes in Abeta 42/40 ratios. J Neurochem.2005; 92:294–301.[ PubMed : 15663477]
  • Wijsman EM, Daw EW, Yu X, Steinbart EJ, Nochlin D, Bird TD, Schellenberg GD. APOE and other loci affect age-at-onset in Alzheimer's disease families with PS2 mutation. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet.2005; 132B:14–20.[ PubMed : 15389756]
  • Wong PC, Zheng H, Chen H, Becher MW, Sirinathsinghji DJ, Trumbauer ME, Chen HY, Price DL, Van der Ploeg LH, Sisodia SS. Presenilin 1 is required for Notch1 and DII1 expression in the paraxial mesoderm. Nature.1997; 387:288–92.[ PubMed : 9153393]
  • Yescas P, Huertas-Vazquez A, Villarreal-Molina MT, Rasmussen A, Tusié-Luna MT, López M, Canizales-Quinteros S, Alonso ME. Founder effect for the Ala431Glu mutation of the presenilin 1 gene causing early-onset Alzheimer's disease in Mexican families. Neurogenetics.2006; 7:195–200.[ PubMed : 16628450]
  • Yu CE, Marchani E, Nikisch G, Müller U, Nolte D, Hertel A, Wijsman EM, Bird TD. The N141I mutation in PSEN2: implications for the quintessential case of Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol.2010; 67:631–3.[ PMC free article : PMC3016011] [ PubMed : 20457965]
  • Zekanowski C, Styczyńska M, Pepłońska B, Gabryelewicz T, Religa D, Ilkowski J, Kijanowska-Haładyna B, Kotapka-Minc S, Mikkelsen S, Pfeffer A, Barczak A, Łuczywek E, Wasiak B, Chodakowska-Zebrowska M, Gustaw K, Łaczkowski J, Sobów T, Kuźnicki J, Barcikowska M. Mutations in presenilin 1, presenilin 2 and amyloid precursor protein genes in patients with early-onset Alzheimer's disease in Poland. Exp Neurol.2003; 184:991–6.[ PubMed : 14769392]

Suggested Reading

  • George-Hyslop PH, Farrer LA, Goedert M. Alzheimer disease and the frontotemporal dementias: diseases with cerebral deposition of fibrillar proteins. In: Valle D, Beaudet AL, Vogelstein B, Kinzler KW, Antonarakis SE, Ballabio A, Gibson K, Mitchell G, eds. The Online Metabolic and Molecular Bases of Inherited Disease (OMMBID).2015. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Chap 234.
  • Post SG, Whitehouse PJ, Binstock RH, Bird TD, Eckert SK, Farrer LA, Fleck LM, Gaines AD, Juengst ET, Karlinsky H, Miles S, Murray TH, Quaid KA, Relkin NR, Roses AD, St George-Hyslop PH, Sachs GA, Steinbock B, Truschke EF, Zinn AB. The clinical introduction of genetic testing for Alzheimer's disease: an ethical perspective. JAMA.1997; 277:832–6.[ PubMed : 9052715]
  • Van Broeckhoven C. Alzheimer's disease: identification of genes and genetic risk factors. Prog Brain Res.1998; 117:315–25.[ PubMed : 9932417]
 

Chapter Notes

Revision History

  • 18 October 2012 (tb) Revision: changes in biomarkers identified in individuals with mutations associated with EOFAD
  • 2 August 2012 (tb) Revision: additional information about APP mutation p.Ala673Val
  • 23 December 2010 (me) Comprehensive update posted live
  • 28 April 2009 (tb) Revision: FISHtesting available clinically for duplications in APP
  • 2 October 2007 (me) Comprehensive update posted to live Web site
  • 26 April 2007 (tb) Revision: for AD1 (APP mutations) clinically available
  • 12 February 2007 (tb) Revision: clinical testing for APP mutations no longer available
  • 19 September 2005 (me) Comprehensive update posted to live Web site
  • 15 September 2003 (tb) Revision: clinical testing for APP available
  • 7 August 2003 (me) Comprehensive update posted to live Web site
  • 20 June 2001 (ca) Comprehensive update posted to live Web site
  • 24 September 1999 (pb) Review posted to live Web site
  • Spring 1996 (tb) Original submission